The 19th century experienced notable transformations in artistic methodologies, departing from the predominantly idealised and heroic representations of the male physique that had prevailed in Western art for centuries. The emergence of Realism, succeeded by diverse avant-garde groups, introduced novel viewpoints and questioned conventional standards in depicting the male figure.
THE RISE OF REALISM AND BEYOND
Realist artists, such as Gustave Courbet, sought to represent the world authentically, frequently emphasising commonplace individuals and quotidian experiences. Courbet’s The Stone Breakers (1849) and other most contentious paintings, while not solely focused on the nude, depicted male figures engaged in labour, highlighting their physicality in a non-idealised fashion. This transition to portraying the working class and the unembellished truth of the human form was a deviation from academic norms (Rewald, 1973, p. 47).
Likewise, Jean-François Raffaëlli’s The Absinthe Drinkers (c. 1881–1883) embodies the period's preoccupation with disadvantaged individuals. The attire of these working-class men does not conceal the fatigue seen in their postures and expressions, which conveys a psychological realism and physical vulnerability that transforms the viewer's perception of the male body from one of grandeur to one of empathy.
In the latter part of the 19th century, artists like Edgar Degas frequently portrayed male figures in intimate and less heroic stances alongside ballet dancers and bathers, emphasising movement and quotidian activities over big themes. Impressionism and Post-Impressionism, although not exclusively centred on the male nude, facilitated painters' exploration of form, light, and subjective experience, transcending conventional anatomical portrayal.
The Bathers series by Paul Cézanne demonstrates this progression. In works like The Large Bathers (1906), Cézanne reinterprets the male form within a cohesive, geometric visual composition. These abstracted figures forfeit their individuality yet acquire symbolic significance, embodying not ideal masculinity but rather shape, rhythm, and modernity itself.
Fig. 1. Gustave Courbet, The Stone Breakers (1849). Oil on canvas. Destroyed during World War II (formerly Gemäldegalerie, Dresden).
Fig. 2. Jean-François Raffaëlli, The Absinthe Drinkers (Les Buveurs d’absinthe) (c. 1881–1883). Oil on canvas. Musée d’Orsay, Paris.
Fig. 3. Edgar Degas, Young Spartans Exercising (c. 1860). Oil on canvas. National Gallery, London.
Fig. 4. Paul Cézanne, Baigneurs (Bathers) (date varies by version, c. 1890s). Oil on canvas. Multiple versions held in various collections, including Musée d’Orsay and Art Institute of Chicago.
Fig. 5. Paul Cézanne, The Large Bathers (Les Grandes Baigneuses) (1906). Oil on canvas. Philadelphia Museum of Art, USA.
This monumental composition merges landscape and nude figures into a unified design. Although the figures are female, Cézanne’s evolving treatment of the human form—structured, faceless, and monumental—had a profound influence on representations of both male and female bodies in early modern art.
INVESTIGATING MASCULINITY
The 20th century witnessed heightened examination of conventional concepts of masculinity, which was evident in artistic depictions of the male form. Artists commenced the exploration of a broader range of male identities and experiences, beyond the solitary archetype of the robust, heroic guy.
Egon Schiele's Self-Seer II (Death and Man) (1911) illustrates this transition. His unrefined and evocative portrayal of the masculine form, characterised by sharp lines and revealed emotional emotions, embodies a vulnerability seldom observed in prior portrayals (Kallir, 1998, p. 75). Likewise, Henri Gaudier-Brzeska’s Wrestlers (about 1914), though lively and somewhat primal in form, eschews classicism in favour of a more visceral, physical confrontation—symbolising both battle and closeness.
Artists linked to Expressionism and Surrealism explored psychological emotions and the intricacies of male identity, frequently depicting shattered or twisted forms that contested traditional portrayals of wholeness and strength.
In this setting, Wilhelm Lehmbruck's Seated Youth (1916–17) is particularly evocative. The extended, sorrowful figure reflects the trauma and disappointment of postwar Europe, as the male body—formerly a symbol of strength—transforms into a receptacle of contemplation and sorrow.
Fig. 6. Egon Schiele, Self-Seer II (Death and Man) (1911). Gouache and pencil on paper. Leopold Museum, Vienna, Austria.
Fig. 7. Henri Gaudier-Brzeska, Wrestlers (1914). Stone sculpture. Tate Britain, London, UK.
Fig. 8. Wilhelm Lehmbruck, Seated Youth (1916–17). Bronze sculpture. Lehmbruck Museum, Duisburg, Germany.
Lehmbruck’s elongated male figure exudes melancholy and introspection. Created during World War I, the work embodies emotional vulnerability and spiritual isolation, offering a poignant counter-image to the heroic masculinity typical of earlier eras.
THE MALE GAZE RE-EXAMINED
Igor Kon (1999) observed that the prevailing "male gaze" in art history frequently regards the female body as the principal target of visual gratification for an assumed heterosexual male audience. The growing presence and impact of female and LGBTQ+ artists have provided different viewpoints, questioning the conventional dynamics in the representation of the masculine body.
Female artists have aggressively challenged the objectification characteristic of the male gaze by depicting males in manners that highlight vulnerability, introspection, or non-sexual intimacy. Alice Neel’s Joe Gould (1933) depicts a dishevelled and slightly fragile male figure, emphasising his character over an idealised form.
In John Perreault (1972), Neel depicts a reclining naked male figure whose gaze directly engages the observer, reflecting the objectifying gaze back at its origin. This reversal disrupts the conventional dynamic, creating a context in which the masculine body is depicted as neither heroic nor eroticised, but rather psychological.
Jenny Saville, although frequently portraying female bodies, has also produced compelling and candid photographs of men that examine physique in a stark and often harsh manner. Her art compels viewers of all genders to engage with the physicality of the male form beyond traditional sexiness.
Fig. 9. Alice Neel, Joe Gould (1933). Oil on canvas. The Addison Gallery of American Art, Andover, Massachusetts, USA.
Fig. 10. Alice Neel, John Perreault (1972). Oil on canvas. Whitney Museum of American Art, New York, USA.
Fig. 11. David Hockney, Peter Getting Out of Nick’s Pool (1966). Acrylic on canvas. Walker Art Gallery, Liverpool, UK.
Fig. 12. Robert Mapplethorpe, Ajitto (1981). Gelatin silver print. The J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles, USA.
LGBTQ+ artists have significantly contributed to altering perceptions, frequently reclaiming the male body as an object of desire and examining male intimacy and sexuality through their personal experiences. David Hockney's Peter Getting Out of Nick's Pool (1966) depicts the masculine physique with a pronounced expression of homoerotic longing and informal closeness, a viewpoint predominantly missing from the prevailing art historical narrative of that era.
Robert Mapplethorpe's Ajitto (1981) presents a similarly audacious assault on prevailing standards. The model's curled posture recalls classical sculpture, notably Michelangelo's Dying Slave; nonetheless, Mapplethorpe's setting and medium reposition this body within a uniquely gay aesthetic of desire, domination, and celebration.
Contemporary artists persist in this exploration. Catherine Opie’s Self-Portrait/Cutting (1993), while not a conventional male nude, reinterprets the symbolic languages of corporeality and identity by etching a household scene onto her own back. Her pictures of masculine-presenting men and gay folks further explore themes of community and selected identity.
Artists such as Zanele Muholi, while largely concentrating on Black lesbian, homosexual, bisexual, transgender, and intersex individuals in South Africa, facilitate a broader transformation by prioritising disadvantaged bodies and perspectives, thereby providing compelling alternatives to prevailing visual narratives.
SEXUALITY AND EROTICISM
The depiction of masculine sexuality and eroticism in art has experienced considerable transformations. The explicit representation of male desire and intimacy, historically limited by social taboos and frequently expressed through mythological or allegorical frameworks, has become increasingly common in the modern period.
Tom of Finland's oeuvre, exemplified by his Kake series, boldly embraced homoerotic desire and hypermasculinity, liberating these aesthetics from marginalisation and suppression (Melinkoff, 2009, p. 102). His archetypes—policemen, bikers, sailors—amplified normative masculinity while also subverting it, portraying the masculine physique as both humorous and subversive.
Modern artists persist in examining varied representations of male sexuality, contesting heteronormative viewpoints and honouring the plasticity of desire. Luke Gilford’s photographic and cinematic endeavours with queer rodeo communities amalgamate compassion and sexuality, capturing the multifaceted nature of masculinity as traditional, performative, and radically inclusive.
Fig. 13-15. Tom of Finland, Untitled (Touko Laaksonen), c. 1980s. Graphite on paper. Tom of Finland Foundation, Los Angeles, USA.
Tom of Finland’s drawings are iconic in their celebration of hypermasculinity, eroticism, and queer desire. His depictions of muscular men in stylised, sexually charged poses were groundbreaking in their unapologetic affirmation of gay male identity during a time of widespread societal repression. These works not only shaped visual culture within the LGBTQ+ community but also challenged mainstream perceptions of masculinity and male beauty.
REFERENCES
Kallir, J. (1998). Egon Schiele: The Complete Works. Harry N. Abrams.
Melinkoff, K. (2009). Tom of Finland: His Life and Times. Bruno Gmünder.
Rewald, J. (1973). The History of Impressionism. The Museum of Modern Art.
Clark, K. (1976). The Nude: A Study in Ideal Form. Oxford University Press.
Kon, I. (1999). The Sexual Revolution in Russia. Free Press.
IMAGES
Fig. 1. Gustave Courbet, The Stone Breakers (1849). Oil on canvas. Destroyed during World War II (formerly Gemäldegalerie, Dresden).
Fig. 2. Jean-François Raffaëlli, The Absinthe Drinkers (Les Buveurs d’absinthe) (c. 1881–1883). Oil on canvas. Musée d’Orsay, Paris.
Fig. 3. Edgar Degas, Young Spartans Exercising (c. 1860). Oil on canvas. National Gallery, London.
Fig. 4. Paul Cézanne, Baigneurs (Bathers) (date varies by version, c. 1890s). Oil on canvas. Multiple versions held in various collections, including Musée d’Orsay and Art Institute of Chicago.
Fig. 5. Paul Cézanne, The Large Bathers (Les Grandes Baigneuses) (1906). Oil on canvas. Philadelphia Museum of Art, USA.
Fig. 6. Egon Schiele, Self-Seer II (Death and Man) (1911). Gouache and pencil on paper. Leopold Museum, Vienna, Austria.
Fig. 7. Henri Gaudier-Brzeska, Wrestlers (1914). Stone sculpture. Tate Britain, London, UK.
Fig. 8. Wilhelm Lehmbruck, Seated Youth (1916–17). Bronze sculpture. Lehmbruck Museum, Duisburg, Germany.
Fig. 9. Alice Neel, Joe Gould (1933). Oil on canvas. The Addison Gallery of American Art, Andover, Massachusetts, USA.
Fig. 10. Alice Neel, John Perreault (1972). Oil on canvas. Whitney Museum of American Art, New York, USA.
Fig. 11. David Hockney, Peter Getting Out of Nick’s Pool (1966). Acrylic on canvas. Walker Art Gallery, Liverpool, UK.
Fig. 12. Robert Mapplethorpe, Ajitto (1981). Gelatin silver print. The J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles, USA.
Fig. 13-15. Tom of Finland, Untitled (Touko Laaksonen), c. 1980s. Graphite on paper. Tom of Finland Foundation, Los Angeles, USA.