The representation of the male physique in art is a tradition that dates back to the first human expressions, growing alongside cultural values and aesthetic principles. Analysing these historical depictions uncovers both artistic norms and the societal notions of masculinity and power they frequently reflect. The legacy of classical ideals endured during the Renaissance, although artists simultaneously ventured into new interpretations of the male body. Michelangelo's David (1501–1504), although grounded in classical contrapposto and heroic nudity, exhibits a discernible tension and psychological profundity that sets it apart from its ancient forerunners (Hartt & Wilkins, 2013, p. 355). The concentrated look and composed posture indicate an inner strength and determination, transcending simple physical perfection. In the religious narratives of the period, exemplified by Leonardo da Vinci’s The Last Supper (c. 1495–1498), the male body is employed to express a spectrum of emotions and spiritual importance through gesture and posture.
Fig. 1. Michelangelo, David, 1501–1504. Marble, Galleria dell’Accademia, Florence.
Fig. 2. Leonardo da Vinci, The Last Supper, c. 1495–1498. Mural, Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan.
THE CLASSICAL IDEAL
The artistic expressions of ancient Greece and Rome created a powerful and lasting model of the male physique. Sculptures like the Doryphoros by Polykleitos and the subsequent Apollo Belvedere exemplify an idealized physique marked by harmonious proportions, muscular musculature, and a sense of heroic nudity (Clark, 1976, p. 18). Kenneth Clark, in his influential work The Nude: A Study in Ideal Form, contends that the Greek nude transcended mere portrayal of the human figure, serving as an embodiment of intellectual and spiritual ideals that express a belief in human potential and logical order (Clark, 1976, pp. 18–25). These sculptures frequently fulfilled religious or civic purposes, depicting deities, athletes, and heroes, thus associating the idealized masculine physique with concepts of divinity, excellence, and civic virtue (Pollitt, 1986, p. 67).
This ancient lineage is reflected in 19th-century masterpieces like Hippolyte Flandrin's Nude Youth Sitting by the Sea (c. 1836), where the solitary male figure embodies the tranquility and contemplation characteristic of Hellenistic sculpture. His stance and reflective look resonate with the enduring attributes of the Greek ideal, reconstructed through Romantic sensibilities.
Fig. 3. Polykleitos, Doryphoros (Spear Bearer), c. 440 BCE. Roman marble copy after a Greek bronze original. Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Naples.
Fig. 4. Hippolyte Flandrin, Nude Youth Sitting by the Sea, c. 1836. Oil on canvas, Louvre Museum, Paris.
RENAISSANCE AND SUBSEQUENT ERAS
The Renaissance had a resurgence of classical ideals, with painters such as Michelangelo significantly influenced by antique sculpture. David exemplifies a comparable focus on muscularity and heroic nudity, however infused with an intensified psychological depth (Hartt & Wilkins, 2013, p. 355). The Renaissance also presented the masculine body in novel contexts, such as religious narratives and portraiture, illustrating a wider spectrum of human experiences and unique identities (Cole, 2017, p. 142).
This era esteemed academic drawing as a means of studying human anatomy. The Academy Drawing of a Man, attributed to Patroclus by Jacques-Louis David, provides a significant perspective on this educational emphasis. The figure, meticulously crafted via anatomical study, functions as both an intellectual endeavour and a representation of idealised masculinity associated with heroism and classical mythology.
Fig. 5. Jacques-Louis David, Patroclus, 1780. Oil on canvas, 121.5 × 170.4 cm. Musée Thomas-Henry, Cherbourg, France.
A Neoclassical study of the male nude, this painting depicts Patroclus with his back turned, emphasizing anatomical precision and stoic repose. The absence of facial features directs focus to the idealized form, reflecting David’s engagement with classical themes and aesthetics.
THE BAROQUE PERIOD
The Baroque period, approximately in the 17th century, initiated a transition towards more dynamic and dramatic portrayals of the male physique. Artists such as Peter Paul Rubens portrayed male figures with pronounced muscle in dynamic poses, highlighting physicality and emotional fervour (Alpers, 1983, p. 119). Bernini's David (1623–1624) presents a stark contrast to Michelangelo's, depicting the biblical hero in the dynamic moment of hurling his stone, his physique imbued with vigour and resolve (Wittkower, 1993, p. 255).
Jules-Élie Delaunay's Ixion Thrown into the Flames (about 1876) echoes this Baroque drama, depicting mythological retribution through a vivid representation of the human form in agony. The dynamic musculature and twisted form evoke the theatrical expressiveness of older Baroque sculpture while embodying 19th-century Romantic preoccupation with myth and suffering.
Fig. 6. David by Gian Lorenzo Bernini (1623–1624).Galleria Borghese, Rome, Italy
Fig. 7. Ixion Thrown into the Flames by Jules-Élie Delaunay (c. 1876). Musée d’Orsay, Paris, France
Fig. 8. Daniel in the Lions’ Den by Peter Paul Rubens (c. 1614–1616). National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C., USA
NEOCLASSICISM AND THE RESURGENCE OF IDEALISM
The late 18th and early 19th centuries had a revival of interest in classical art and philosophy, leading to the emergence of Neoclassicism. Artists such as Jacques-Louis David, in works like The Oath of the Horatii (1784), showcased male figures with a heightened focus on linear precision, stoic heroism, and idealised anatomy, reflecting the moral and civic values linked to the Roman Republic (Rosenberg, 2005, p. 287). The male nude in Neoclassical painting frequently functioned as a symbol of valour, nationalism, and ethical integrity.
Jean Delville's École de Platon (1898) presents a robust continuation of this idealism, featuring a multitude of idealised, ethereal male figures congregating around the philosopher, exemplifying the balance between beauty and intelligence esteemed by Neoclassicism. This allegorical depiction reaffirms classical ideals of symmetry, moral integrity, and intellectual elevation through the male figure.
Fig. 9. Oath of the Horatii by Jacques-Louis David (1784). Louvre Museum, Paris, France
Fig. 10. École de Platon by Jean Delville (1898). Musées Royaux des Beaux-Arts de Belgique, Brussels, Belgium
A defining image of Neoclassicism, this painting shows three brothers swearing allegiance to their father before battle. The male bodies are presented in tense, sculptural clarity, symbolising discipline, patriotism, and stoic masculinity. David’s composition reflects Enlightenment values and uses classical forms to embody civic virtue and self-sacrifice.
Delville’s symbolist masterpiece portrays Plato surrounded by idealised male youths in a celestial version of his Academy. The ethereal glow and elongated figures elevate the male body to a spiritual plane, merging classical aesthetics with esoteric philosophy. The painting invites contemplation of the body as a vessel for higher truths and intellectual transcendence.
REFERENCES
Alpers, S. (1983). The Vexations of Art: Velázquez and Others. Yale University Press.
Clark, K. (1976). The Nude: A Study in Ideal Form. Oxford University Press.
Cole, M. (2017). A Renaissance of Our Own: Art, Sexuality, and the Male Nude. Thames & Hudson.
Hartt, F., & Wilkins, D. G. (2013). History of Italian Renaissance Art. Pearson.
Pollitt, J. J. (1986). Art in the Hellenistic Age. Cambridge University Press.
Pointon, M. (1990). Naked Authority: The Body in Western Painting, 1830–1908. Cambridge University Press.
Rosenberg, P. (2005). Jacques-Louis David: Empire to Exile. Yale Wittkower, R. (1993). Art and Architecture in Italy, 1600–1750. Yale University Press.
IMAGES
Fig. 1. Michelangelo, David, 1501–1504. Marble, Galleria dell’Accademia, Florence.
Fig. 2. Leonardo da Vinci, The Last Supper, c. 1495–1498. Mural, Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan.
Fig. 3. Polykleitos, Doryphoros (Spear Bearer), c. 440 BCE. Roman marble copy after a Greek bronze original. Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Naples.
Fig. 4. Hippolyte Flandrin, Nude Youth Sitting by the Sea, c. 1836. Oil on canvas, Louvre Museum, Paris.
Fig. 5. Jacques-Louis David, Patroclus, 1780. Oil on canvas, 121.5 × 170.4 cm. Musée Thomas-Henry, Cherbourg, France.
Fig. 6. Gian Lorenzo Bernini, David (1623–1624). Galleria Borghese, Rome, Italy
Fig. 7. Jules-Élie Delaunay, Ixion Thrown into the Flames (c. 1876). Musée d’Orsay, Paris, France
Fig. 8. Peter Paul Rubens, Daniel in the Lions’ Den (c. 1614–1616). National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C., USA
Fig. 9. Jacques-Louis David, Oath of the Horatii (1784). Louvre Museum, Paris, France
Fig. 10. Jean Delville, École de Platon (1898). Musées Royaux des Beaux-Arts de Belgique, Brussels, Belgium